It is Theater - Literature Essay Samples

Theatre began as a presentation of stories and ideas, mostly revolving around festival times in the calendar of the church year. This concept was carried on in Shakespeares times and is exemplified in his plays Twelfth Night, or What You Will and A Midsummer Nights Dream. These plays express a carnival theme, implying a mixed-up time  ­ a time when anything goes and many things that would not be tolerated in normal life are easily overlooked and maybe even encouraged. Even though many of the ideas and emotions that occur in Shakespeares plays are common to everyone, it is still not representational because it does not even attempt to present it in a way that reflects real life. The language is artificial (though beautiful), the sets are sparse, the plots include illogical twists and turns we must simply accept, and the settings themselves are often fantastical.The theatres where Shakespeares plays were performed were built according to a common general design. Very briefly, th ere was a rather large playing area, with a trap door in the center of the stage. This was partially covered by a roof which supported a platform that served as a balcony and, possibly, as seating areas for more wealthy patrons. This may also have been used for musicians when necessary. Above this was the hut which allowed special effects to be performed (McDonald 116-117). There were no elaborate sets or backdrops used to create the surroundings. The setting was established using sparse furnishings, such as a table or a bed, or props that would only be used in an outdoor setting, such as torches or weapons (McDonald 110). These scanty accoutrements allowed great freedom in the pacing of the plays (because of ease of set changes) as well as requiring that the location be stated in the dialogue and substantiated through the imagination of the audience. This feature of Renaissance theatre contributed to the presentational quality of Shakespeares works because it did not detract from the language of the plays  ­ it did not distract the audience from the ideas and concepts that were presented. At the same time, it forced the spectator to create the missing pieces of the set in his mind, and it made it necessary for him to follow the action and dialogue very closely. Some things that were included in the production were often incorporated with the express purpose of keeping the audiences attention. Music was used as a device to accomplish this as well as to provide a neat beginning or ending to a scene.Shakespeare used his characters and settings to create wonderfully twisted comedic plots, but we must actively employ the willing suspension of disbelief in our analysis of them. In Twelfth Night, or What You Will, we are expected to believe that brother and sister, (who are twins) are, in fact identical twins and when dressed alike, are indistinguishable from each other. In The Comedy of Errors, we must not only believe that the twin brothers are ident ical, but that the two servants that serve them are identical as well. The action of Twelfth Night takes place in Illyria, which seems to be a place where magical things can happen. While A Midsummer Nights Dream is set in Athens, much of the action occurs in a nearby wooded area peopled with fairies and full of darkness and mythological inferences.One element of Shakespeares plays that is often unrealistic is time. This is due in part to the fact that there were no electric lights to establish the time of day or season, and the plays were performed by the light of day or (when performed at an indoor playhouse) by torchlight. Thus, it was necessary to establish the hour, as well as the scene, in the dialogue and/or the action itself. As night falls in Romeo and Juliet, torches are used to create the impression that the Montagues who pursue Romeo after the party scene are doing so in darkness, and when morning comes, Friar Lawrence remarks, The grey-eyd morn smiles on the frowni ng night (McDonald 111).Shakespeare is also known for manipulating time to fit the action, or to emphasize a certain point. Twelfth Night, or What You Will has an example of this when, at the beginning of Scene 4, Valentine states that Viola has been in the service of Orsino for just three days. However, at the end of the play, Orsino attests that Three months this youth [Cesario] hath tended upon meŠ (Shakespeare 470). This could, however, be more rhetorical than literal: the three days could be meant to highlight the bond that has grown between Orsino and his new servant so quickly, and the three months emphasizes the many changes that have occurred in the time that has passed. In addition to this apparent discrepancy, time seems to cease after its mention in Act II, until Act V, when Antonio is asked when he arrived. He replies, TodayŠ, (Shakespeare 470) implying that all the action to that point through the end of Act V took place in one day. Another example of Shake speares apparent distortion of time occurs in The Comedy of Errors, when all of the action of the play must lead to a climax at 5:00 in the afternoon. This is when Egeon is scheduled for execution, Angelo must pay the Second Merchant his money, and the meeting of Antipholus of Syracuse and the merchant is supposed to take place. This allows a great deal of comedic tension and provides for a particularly effective climactic scene when all the misunderstandings are cleared up for the audience as well as the characters.A Midsummer Nights Dream is possibly Shakespeares most fantastical play in its plot, as well as in the fact that there are actual fairies in the cast. It contains a play within a play that closely mirrors the real action, but differs in that it shows the tragedy that might have occurred if the fairies had not done their part to remedy the situation. It also illustrates the theme of reality versus theatre. Nick Bottom insists that the ladies will be frightened by the appearance of the lion and convinces the writers of Pyramus and Thisbe to include in the prologue an explanation of the lion as being just an actor, and also to clearly inform the audience that his suicide is not real, but is only acting. Thus Shakespeare is making a not-so-subtle point that in reality, the theatre is only acting, and is further trying to convince the public that what is presented is inconsequential because it is merely a faà §ade; and, then again, at the end, Puck apologizes to the audience, saying, If we shadows have offended, Think but this, and all is mended, That you have but slumbred here While these visions did appear. And this weak and idle theme, No more yielding but a dreamŠ(Shakespeare 280). This is partly due to the fact that if anyone was offended who may have been particularly powerful, the possibility existed that the work may be censored, or there may have been consequences for the actors themselves, even though they were only playing a part. While Shakespeare often mimicked life and even mirrored many things that are true in our human experience, he was always aware that he was presenting a picture. The audience always was, and still is, conscious of the fact that what they were watching was not a true representation of life as it is lived. It is theatre. Many of the ideas and emotions that Shakespeare expressed are, no doubt, common to most of us, but they are expressed in a necessarily dramatic manner. The very nature of Shakespeares work defines it as art, which is, was, and ever shall be a reflection and a result of, and, possibly, a changing force in the world around it.

The History Of Cross Culture Training Business Essay - Free Essay Example

With globalization in full swing, cross-cultural training is a necessity in the modern day world. The aspect of diverse culture in the business environment ought to be taken as a serious issue. Inability to understand and contain diverse culture in a business environment is critical as it can result into a diminishing business environment. Qualified decisions must be made as to the best cross-cultural training programs that an organization should adopt. There is no adequate research on this. This research study aims at establishing the adequacy of cross-cultural training by outside institutions such as universities in Chinese business environment rather than in-house cross-cultural training programs. To get the results, a comprehensive literature review was conducted. It was foun that cross-cultural training offered by outside institutions in Chinese business environment is common. This is due to the fact that China has unique cultures and in-house training on culture does not present sufficient opportunities for success. This study is essential as it serves to provide information to businesses not only in China but in other parts of the world regarding the best way to offer cross-cultural training to reap the benefits of the presence of diverse cultures in a business environment. Cross-Culture Training Cross-cul tural training is a phrase commonly used to define a form of training that is offered with an aim of highlighting the difficulties and problems faced in working in a cross-cultural context. In addition, cross-cultural training teaches both skills and methodologies necessary to overcome such difficulties. With globalization in full effect, cross-cultural training in businesses is indispensable. Since globalization took effect, the traditional way of business operation and communication in businesses has been dispensed. Indeed, in the modern day world, it has become exceedingly common for staff in a particular country to regularly deal with clients, colleagues or even suppliers in another country over such communication mediums as emails, telephones or even video conferencing. While people from different regions in the world may work for one organization, possess same knowledge and skills or even work in the same industry, the manner in which each individual works, interacts and does business may be characterized by vast differences. Therefore, when working in a multicultural context, having the appropriate professional skills and understanding personal and colleagues cultural make-up is indispensable as it helps avoid business failure and misunderstandings given rise by inadequate cultural sensitivity and competence. In the Middle East, especially China, businesses have increasingly realized the need for cross-cultural training. This follows after research identified that doing business in the Middle East presents formidable cultural challenges. Therefore, businesses in the region engage themselves rigorously in this aspect to ensure that their businesses operate effectively. A significant number of businesses in China tend to use outside institutions such as universities to conduct such training. Therefore, this paper aims at establishing the extent to which Chinese businesses use outside institutions cross-cultural training. Literature Review In a review of 228 multinational companies in China, Solomon (1994) found out that all the companies had well-designed cross-cultural programs for expatriates, which were administered not only before but also after the individuals left their home countries, if they wanted their expatriates perform successively oversees. In addition to this, Solomon (1994) established that out of the 228 multinational companies studied in China, 167 offered cross-cultural training to their expatriates through expatriates. Most of the companies studied used outside institutions such as higher educational facilities where professors, especially those specializing in business fields, offered cross-cultural training to the expatriates of the respective companies. In his study, Adler (2001) identified that cultural differences in the Middle East are too essential to be ignored or even denied. Adler and Bartholomew (1992) assert that the use of outside institutions by businesses with an aim of helping employees learn about different cultures is very essential. They further contend that higher education facility educators, who in most cases, have a high level of knowledge and skills in handling cultures owing to their education levels and experiences, facilitate and diffuse cultural synergies. Indeed, facilitation and diffusion of cultural synergies is considered to be an essential and a critical economic success factor. Forster (2000) supports this by indicating that employing the use of higher education faculties in a business organizations cross-cultural program is very essential as it serves to assist business expatriates adapt to living, as well as, working conditions in their host countries. Brewster (1995) sampled a total of 24 multinational companies in China. In the sample, 12 of those companies exercised cross-cultural training on their own while 12 of them employed the use outside institutions such as University professors to facilitate cross-cultural training. The r esearcher found out that the multinational companies that conducted cultural training on their own was insufficient, incomplete or simply non-existent. On the other hand, those that utilized the services of outside institutions were better placed in terms of business success since such aspects as misunderstandings within the business had been eliminated and thus an improved performance. Shumsky (1992) identifies that those companies that fail to provide cross-cultural training in their businesses through outside institutions often do so since they have no international experience. In addition, such businesses assume that offering such training through such institutions is a waste of business financial resources and not a necessity. Such businesses opt to offer cross-cultural training on their own without employing the use of other people with adequate knowledge and experience on the field. This is indeed, suicidal for a business since in-house training cannot render adequate cros s-cultural training, considering that it is a very broad issue and thus requires professionals to offer training on it. The culture and behavior in China is unique and many researchers identify it as an integral aspect of the Chinese language. For a business to be a success in the Chinese business environment, it is a mandate that a business first understands the customs and the context of the Chinese business. The requirement for this is adequate knowledge of the business culture in China. The Chinese higher education board has introduced a system where the curriculum addresses the diverse needs of cultures in China. This means that the educators who offer education on cultures are well versed with cultural knowledge, skills and experience. In Chinese educational facilities, students come from different backgrounds and thus diversified cultures. To ensure that there is no conflicting nature of education, the students are offered education on the best way to live and study as a u nit irrespective of the cultural differences. This is done by cultural training versed professors. The business environment in China is no different from educational facilities. Therefore, since higher education facility professors are well versed with knowledge, skills and experiences on cultural differences and coupling with their levels of education, they are seen as the best people to offer cultural education in the business environment. In his study, Tung (2002) suggested that the best and the most effective cross-cultural training in the Chinese business environment need to be specific and one that puts a stern focus on a particular population and situation. This can only be offered by outside institutions. The researcher further indicates that it is for this reason that it is logical that multinational companies, as well as, organizations in China provides their employees with specific cross-cultural training, which deals in important details about the Chinese population, as well as, project management issues by employing the services of outside cross-cultural training facilitators. Cross-cultural programs offered by outside institutions tends to put an exclusive focus on the specific culture, religion, as well as, on the manner in which laws, leadership and ethics can be covered. Main Thesis The reviewed literature in the literature review section highlights the practice of cross-cultural training in Chinese businesses. The common characteristic of the reviewed literature is that they endorse the essentialness and the need for outside facilitated cross-cultural training in Chinese businesses. However, the literature has served to reveal the inconsistency attributable to approaches adopted by prior researchers to access the extent to which businesses in China use outside organizations in offering cross-cultural training to employees. This section aims at presenting the essential logic of utilizing outside institutions in offering cross-cultural training in Chinese business environment with an aim of permitting empirical research with accord to stable criteria. The presence of diverse cultures can exist to affect the manner in which employees perform in a company owing to the difficulties evident in attempting to adjust to the new business environment. Indeed, this affects them both psychologically and emotionally. The presence of diversified cultures in a business environment especially in China, whose cultures are unique, can surface conflicts between employees. As a result, employee performance worsens and ultimately, the business underperforms. The strategic observation that cross-cultural training should be offered by outside institutions is well informed. As it is affirmed in the reviewed literature, incorporating the use of training services from outside sources promotes the formulation of customized strategies necessary to help in responding to the challenge emanating from the presence of diverse cultures in business environments. The Chinese business environment is perceived to be a complex one and this implies that calculative strategies, mostly offered by outside institutions, are necessary if at all there is a need for employees to become empowered. The development placed on employees to enable them thrive in contrasting cultural setting in a business environment is necessary considering the dynamics of the modern-day world. Simply put, while the current wave of globalization is on an increase, diverse cultures persist. This affirms the need for employees to have multicultural knowledge. This is not a matter of simply cross-cultural training but one offered by outside institutions, which are better versed with the cultural developments. Organizations in cultural diverse environments such as China cannot manage to distance themselves from this aspect. Therefore, it is necessary to incorporate such form of training into its management strategy. Recommendations The following recommendations are advanced by the paper as a way of increasing the managements role of providing cross-cultural training within organizations in China. Make cross-cultural training a priority. The management should ensure that it cultivates the culture of multi-cultural training, whether offered by outside institutions or not. This will empower the employees and give them knowledge regarding how to be successful in inter-cultural business environments. Liaise with higher education facilities offering business related courses and arrange for a session where the employees of the company can go and learn on cross-cultural training. This is particularly advantageous as the employees will have the chance to interact with the institutions professors who will offer exclusive education and training on understanding, interacting and working in diverse cultures in a business environment. Ensure that outside institutions cross-cultural training facilitators are fully supported by the company. A company ought to give support to the facilitator by way of allocating adequate staff, financial and time resources in order to ensure that the program is run successfully. In addition, all the required materials for training should be availed. Periodic training sessions at the convenience of the outside cultural-training facilitator ought to be organized. The aspect of culture is characterized by a significant range of dynamics, which serve to give a business a new shape on almost a daily basis. In other worlds, attributes of culture keeps on changing regularly and this affects a business on a daily basis. Therefore, periodic cross-cultural training offered by outside institutions is necessary to make good of these changes. In summary, cross-cultural training by outside institutions should be an integral aspect of the top management of businesses in areas characterized by diverse cultures. This is particularly necessary to ensure survival and succes s of a business. In reality, an in-house cultural-training program is not adequate and does not help. Indeed, it may make an organization become a chaotic system thus resulting into severe repercussions to the business. Discussion This paper reported a pattern of cross-cultural training in Chinese business environment and attempted to address the pattern from the managerial perspective. In the process of doing so, the bodies of science of cross-cultural trainings concept were reviewed. The objective was to provide a coherent view of the extent to which the outside institutions are better placed to offer cross-cultural training to employees in the Chinese business environment. Going into the future, adequate research on cross-cultural training by outside institutions should be conducted to enable businesses in diverse cultural business settings establish the best practice when it comes to cross-cultural training. This might be perceived as an unnecessary task. However, given the current wave of globalization, such research is necessary for the survival of businesses. However, these research studies ought to further examine the models used in cross-cultural training in relation to the habits of an indivi dual when introduced to foreign business environments. If this is done, knowledge of effective strategies for cross-cultural training would lead to an increased business performance.